It seems fair in theory. But when rounding interacts with employer attendance policies, it can hurt employees. You're more. By The Conversation US. Many organizations expand their mission over time.
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Financial profit is the core of any business model, and there's nothing wrong with that. But financial gain should never. By Danielle Sabrina "Crypto Queen". Newsletter Sign Up. Successfully Subscribed! Technology can solve information asymmetries which is the root of most of these problems. We can make the world better. By Quora. New Networks to Fight Modern Slavery. The exploitation of people - whether their efforts are provided by debt bondage, under threat of violence, psychologically.
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EconLit This database features many articles about economics and ethics. Emerald The case studies section of this database provides interesting articles about the global market and ethical management.
You can browse journals by clicking on the Business, Management, and Accounting link under Social Sciences on the home page or using the search box to find a specific journal. You can also search for a subject or keyword in the "Search All Fields" box. Scopus Scopus has a collection of business articles that can be accessed by typing in search terms or browsing the journal collection.
Value Line You can search for business or investment information by typing in a key word or searching by the company name or ticker symbol. Wiley Online Library This database has a large collection of multidisciplinary journals. Though, if a doctor helps and makes a mistake that is considered negligent and unethical, there could be egregious repercussions. A business may approach a professional engineer to certify the safety of a project which is not safe.
While one engineer may refuse to certify the project on moral grounds, the business may find a less scrupulous engineer who will be prepared to certify the project for a bribe, thus saving the business the expense of redesigning.
Separatism On a theoretical level, there is debate as to whether an ethical code for a profession should be consistent with the requirements of morality governing the public.
Separatists argue that professions should be allowed to go beyond such confines when they judge it necessary. This is because they are trained to produce certain outcomes which may take moral precedence over other functions of society. For example, it could be argued that a doctor may lie to a patient about the severity of his or her condition if there is reason to believe that telling the patient would cause so much distress that it would be detrimental to his or her health.
This would generally be seen as morally wrong. However, if the end of improving and maintaining health is given a moral priority in society, then it may be justifiable to contravene other moral demands in order to meet this goal. Separatism is based on a relativist conception of morality that there can be different, equally valid, moral codes that apply to different sections of society and differences in codes between societies see moral relativism. If moral universalism is ascribed to, then this would be inconsistent with the view that professions can have a different moral code, as the universalist holds that there is only one valid moral code for all.
Although people have differing opinions about if it is effective, surveys state that it is the overall goal of the University administrators. Setting up a business-like atmosphere helps students get adjusted from a more relaxed nature, like high school, towards what will be expected of them in the business world upon graduating from College.
Codes of conduct Codes of conduct, such as the St. Xavier Code of Conduct, are becoming more a staple in the academic lives of students. While some of these rules are based solely on academics others are more in depth than in previous years.
Such as, detailing the level of respect expected towards staff and gambling. Not only do codes of conduct apply while attending the schools at home, but also while studying abroad. Schools also implement a code of conduct for international study abroad programs which carry over many of the same rules found in most student handbooks. Normative sentences imply "ought- to" types of statements and assertions, in distinction to sentences that provide "is" types of statements and assertions.
Common normative sentences include commands, permissions, and prohibitions; common normative abstract concepts include sincerity, justification, and honesty. A popular account of norms describes them as reasons to take action, to believe, and to feel. Types of norms Orders and permissions express norms. Such norm sentences do not describe how the world is, they rather prescribe how the world should be.
Imperative sentences are the most obvious way to express norms, but declarative sentences also may be norms, as is the case with laws or 'principles'. Generally, whether an expression is a norm depends on what the sentence intends to assert. For instance, a sentence of the form "All Ravens are Black" could on one account be taken as descriptive, in which case an instance of a white raven would contradict it, or alternatively "All Ravens are Black" could be interpreted as a norm, in which case it stands as a principle and definition, so 'a white raven' would then not be a raven.
Those norms purporting to create obligations or duties and permissions are called deontic norms see also deontic logic. The concept of deontic norm is already an extension of a previous concept of norm, which would only include imperatives, that is, norms purporting to create duties.
The understanding that permissions are norms in the same way was an important step in ethics and philosophy of law. In addition to deontic norms, many other varieties have been identified. For instance, some constitutions establish the national anthem. These norms do not directly create any duty or permission. They create a "national symbol". Other norms create nations themselves or political and administrative regions within a nation.
The action orientation of such norms is less obvious than in the case of a command or permission, but is essential for understanding the relevance of issuing such norms: When a folk song becomes a "national anthem" the meaning of singing one and the same song changes; likewise, when a piece of land becomes an administrative region, this has legal consequences for many activities taking place on that territory; and without these consequences concerning action, the norms would be irrelevant.
A more obviously action- oriented variety of such constitutive norms as opposed to deontic or regulatory norms establishes social institutions which give rise to new, previously inexistent types of actions or activities a standard example is the institution of marriage without which "getting married" would not be a feasible action; another is the rules constituting a game: without the norms of soccer, there would not exist such an action as executing an indirect free kick.
Any convention can create a norm, although the relation between both is not settled. There is a significant discussion about legal norms that give someone the power to create other norms. They are called power-conferring norms or norms of competence. Some authors argue that they are still deontic norms, while others argue for a close connection between them and institutional facts see Raz , Ruiter Linguistic conventions, for example, the convention in English that "cat" means cat or the convention in Portuguese that "gato" means cat, are among the most important norms.
Games completely depend on norms. The fundamental norm of many games is the norm establishing who wins and loses. In other games, it is the norm establishing how to score points. Some people say they are "prescriptively true" or false. Whereas the truth of a descriptive statement is purportedly based on its correspondence to reality, some philosophers, beginning with Aristotle, assert that the prescriptive truth of a prescriptive statement is based on its correspondence to right desire.
Other philosophers maintain that norms are ultimately neither true or false, but only successful or unsuccessful valid or invalid , as their propositional content obtains or not see also John Searle and speech act. There is an important difference between norms and normative propositions, although they are often expressed by identical sentences. Some ethical theories reject that there can be normative propositions, but these are accepted by cognitivism.
One can also think of propositional norms; assertions and questions arguably express propositional norms they set a proposition as asserted or questioned.
Another purported feature of norms, it is often argued, is that they never regard only natural properties or entities. Norms always bring something artificial, conventional, institutional or "unworldly". This might be related to Hume's assertion that it is not possible to derive ought from is and to G. Moore's claim that there is a naturalistic fallacy when one tries to analyse "good" and "bad" in terms of a natural concept. In aesthetics, it has also been argued that it is impossible to derive an aesthetical predicate from a non-aesthetical one.
The acceptability of non-natural properties, however, is strongly debated in present-day philosophy. Some authors deny their existence, some others try to reduce them to natural ones, on which the former supervene. Other thinkers Adler, assert that norms can be natural in a different sense than that of "corresponding to something proceeding from the object of the prescription as a strictly internal source of action".
Rather, those who assert the existence of natural prescriptions say norms can suit a natural need on the part of the prescribed entity. More to the point, however, is the putting forward of the notion that just as descriptive statements being considered true are conditioned upon certain self-evident descriptive truths suiting the nature of reality such as: it is impossible for the same thing to be and not be at the same time and in the same manner , a prescriptive truth can suit the nature of the will through the authority of it being based upon self-evident prescriptive truths such as: one ought to desire what is really good for one and nothing else.
Recent works maintain that normativity has an important role in several different philosophical subjects, not only in ethics and philosophy of law see Dancy, Philosophy of business The philosophy of business considers the fundamental principles that underlie the formation and operation of a business enterprise; the nature and purpose of a business, and the moral obligations that pertain to it.
Moral obligation The term moral obligation has a number of meanings in moral philosophy, in religion, and in layman's terms. Generally speaking, when someone says of an act that it is a "moral obligation," they refer to a belief that the act is one prescribed by their set of values.
Obligation being a set code by which a person is to follow. Obligations can be found by an individual's peers that set a code that may go against the individual's own desires.
The individual will express their morality by the person following the set code s through seeing it as good to appease society. Ethics Ethics or moral philosophy is the branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct.
The branch of philosophy axiology comprises the sub-branches of ethics and aesthetics, each concerned with values. As a branch of philosophy, ethics investigates the questions "What is the best way for people to live? As a field of intellectual enquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory. Three major areas of study within ethics recognised today are: Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their truth values if any can be determined 1.
Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action 2. Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as "a set of concepts and principles that guide us in determining what behavior helps or harms sentient creatures". The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word ethics is "commonly used interchangeably with 'morality' The word "ethics" in English refers to several things.
It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason in order to answer various kinds of ethical questions. As the English philosopher Bernard Williams writes, attempting to explain moral philosophy: "What makes an inquiry a philosophical one is reflective generality and a style of argument that claims to be rationally persuasive.
As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written: "Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values and direct our actions in terms of such values, is a generic human capacity. For example: "Joe has strange ethics. A meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, "Is it ever possible to have secure knowledge of what is right and wrong? Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics. For example, Aristotle implies that less precise knowledge is possible in ethics than in other spheres of inquiry, and he regards ethical knowledge as depending upon habit and acculturation in a way that makes it distinctive from other kinds of knowledge.
Meta-ethics is also important in G. Moore's Principia Ethica from In it he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy. Moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his Open Question Argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics.
Earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values. Studies of how we know in ethics divide into cognitivism and non- cognitivism; this is similar to the contrast between descriptivists and non-descriptivists. Non- cognitivism is the claim that when we judge something as right or wrong, this is neither true nor false.
We may for example be only expressing our emotional feelings about these things. The ontology of ethics is about value-bearing things or properties, i. Non-descriptivists and non- cognitivists believe that ethics does not need a specific ontology, since ethical propositions do not refer.
This is known as an anti-realist position. Realists on the other hand must explain what kind of entities, properties or states are relevant for ethics, how they have value, and why they guide and motivate our actions. Normative ethics Normative ethics is the study of ethical action. It is the branch of ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking.
Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics because it examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, while meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts.
Normative ethics is also distinct from descriptive ethics, as the latter is an empirical investigation of people's moral beliefs. To put it another way, descriptive ethics would be concerned with determining what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief.
However, on certain versions of the meta-ethical view called moral realism, moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time. Traditionally, normative ethics also known as moral theory was the study of what makes actions right and wrong.
These theories offered an overarching moral principle one could appeal to in resolving difficult moral decisions. At the turn of the 20th century, moral theories became more complex and are no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but are interested in many different kinds of moral status. During the middle of the century, the study of normative ethics declined as meta-ethics grew in prominence. This focus on meta-ethics was in part caused by an intense linguistic focus in analytic philosophy and by the popularity of logical positivism.
In John Rawls published A Theory of Justice, noteworthy in its pursuit of moral arguments and eschewing of meta-ethics. This publication set the trend for renewed interest in normative ethics.
Virtue ethics Virtue ethics describes the character of a moral agent as a driving force for ethical behavior, and is used to describe the ethics of Socrates, Aristotle, and other early Greek philosophers. Socrates — BC was one of the first Greek philosophers to encourage both scholars and the common citizen to turn their attention from the outside world to the condition of humankind.
In this view, knowledge bearing on human life was placed highest, while all other knowledge were secondary. Self-knowledge was considered necessary for success and inherently an essential good. A self-aware person will act completely within his capabilities to his pinnacle, while an ignorant person will flounder and encounter difficulty. To Socrates, a person must become aware of every fact and its context relevant to his existence, if he wishes to attain self-knowledge. He posited that people will naturally do what is good, if they know what is right.
Evil or bad actions are the result of ignorance. If a criminal was truly aware of the intellectual and spiritual consequences of his actions, he would neither commit nor even consider committing those actions. Any person who knows what is truly right will automatically do it, according to Socrates.
While he correlated knowledge with virtue, he similarly equated virtue with joy. The truly wise man will know what is right, do what is good, and therefore be happy. Aristotle — BC posited an ethical system that may be termed "self-realizationism. At birth, a baby is not a person, but a potential person. To become a "real" person, the child's inherent potential must be realized. Unhappiness and frustration are caused by the unrealized potential of a person, leading to failed goals and a poor life.
Aristotle said, "Nature does nothing in vain. Happiness was held to be the ultimate goal. All other things, such as civic life or wealth, are merely means to the end. Self- realization, the awareness of one's nature and the development of one's talents, is the surest path to happiness.
Physical nature can be assuaged through exercise and care, emotional nature through indulgence of instinct and urges, and mental through human reason and developed potential. Rational development was considered the most important, as essential to philosophical self-awareness and as uniquely human.
Moderation was encouraged, with the extremes seen as degraded and immoral. For example, courage is the moderate virtue between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness. This is regarded as difficult, as virtue denotes doing the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, to the proper extent, in the correct fashion, for the right reason.
Stoicism The Stoic philosopher Epictetus posited that the greatest good was contentment and serenity. Peace of mind, or Apatheia, was of the highest value; self-mastery over one's desires and emotions leads to spiritual peace. The "unconquerable will" is central to this philosophy. The individual's will should be independent and inviolate. Allowing a person to disturb the mental equilibrium is in essence offering yourself in slavery.
If a person is free to anger you at will, you have no control over your internal world, and therefore no freedom. Freedom from material attachments is also necessary. If a thing breaks, the person should not be upset, but realize it was a thing that could break. Similarly, if someone should die, those close to them should hold to their serenity because the loved one was made of flesh and blood destined to death.
Stoic philosophy says to accept things that cannot be changed, resigning oneself to existence and enduring in a rational fashion. Death is not feared. People do not "lose" their life, but instead "return", for they are returning to God who initially gave what the person is as a person. Epictetus said difficult problems in life should not be avoided, but rather embraced.
They are spiritual exercises needed for the health of the spirit, just as physical exercise is required for the health of the body. He also stated that sex and sexual desire are to be avoided as the greatest threat to the integrity and equilibrium of a man's mind. Abstinence is highly desirable.
Epictetus said remaining abstinent in the face of temptation was a victory for which a man could be proud. Contemporary virtue ethics Modern virtue ethics was popularized during the late 20th century in large part as a response to G. Anscombe's "Modern Moral Philosophy".
Anscombe argues that consequentialist and deontological ethics are only feasible as universal theories if the two schools ground themselves in divine law. As a deeply devoted Christian herself, Anscombe proposed that either those who do not give ethical credence to notions of divine law take up virtue ethics, which does not necessitate universal laws as agents themselves are investigated for virtue or vice and held up to "universal standards," or that those who wish to be utilitarian or consequentialist ground their theories in religious conviction.
Alasdair MacIntyre, who wrote the book After Virtue, was a key contributor and proponent of modern virtue ethics, although MacIntyre supports a relativistic account of virtue based on cultural norms, not objective standards. Martha Nussbaum, a contemporary virtue ethicist, objects to MacIntyre's relativism, among that of others, and responds to relativist objections to form an objective account in her work "Non-Relative Virtues: An Aristotelian Approach.
There are several schools of Hedonist thought ranging from those advocating the indulgence of even momentary desires to those teaching a pursuit of spiritual bliss. In their consideration of consequences, they range from those advocating self-gratification regardless of the pain and expense to others, to those stating that the most ethical pursuit maximizes pleasure and happiness for the most people.
Cyrenaic hedonism Founded by Aristippus of Cyrene, Cyrenaics supported immediate gratification or pleasure. There was little to no concern with the future, the present dominating in the pursuit for immediate pleasure. Cyrenaic hedonism encouraged the pursuit of enjoyment and indulgence without hesitation, believing pleasure to be the only good.
Epicureanism Epicurean ethics is a hedonist form of virtue ethics. Epicurus "presented a sustained argument that pleasure, correctly understood, will coincide with virtue". He rejected the extremism of the Cyrenaics, believing some pleasures and indulgences to be detrimental to human beings.
Epicureans observed that indiscriminate indulgence sometimes resulted in negative consequences. Some experiences were therefore rejected out of hand, and some unpleasant experiences endured in the present to ensure a better life in the future.
To Epicurus the summum bonum, or greatest good, was prudence, exercised through moderation and caution. Excessive indulgence can be destructive to pleasure and can even lead to pain. For example, eating one food too often will cause a person to lose taste for it. Eating too much food at once will lead to discomfort and ill-health. Pain and fear were to be avoided. Living was essentially good, barring pain and illness. Death was not to be feared. Fear was considered the source of most unhappiness.
Conquering the fear of death would naturally lead to a happier life. Epicurus reasoned if there was an afterlife and immortality, the fear of death was irrational. If there was no life after death, then the person would not be alive to suffer, fear or worry; he would be non- existent in death. It is irrational to fret over circumstances that do not exist, such as one's state in death in the absence of an afterlife. State consequentialism State consequentialism, also known as Mohist consequentialism, is an ethical theory that evaluates the moral worth of an action based on how much it contributes to the basic goods of a state.
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BC, as "a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare.
During Mozi's era, war and famines were common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a harmonious society.
The "material wealth" of Mohist consequentialism refers to basic needs like shelter and clothing, and the "order" of Mohist consequentialism refers to Mozi's stance against warfare and violence, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to social stability. Stanford sinologist David Shepherd Nivison, in The Cambridge History of Ancient China, writes that the moral goods of Mohism "are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more reproduction; more people, then more production and wealth The importance of outcomes that are good for the community outweigh the importance of individual pleasure and pain.
What characterized Aristote- lian ethics mainly was the connection among virtue, Main virtue ethics scholars, their backgrounds, practical wisdom, and eudaimonia human flourish- and their sources ing. Virtue was a freely acquired habitual disposi- One of the goals of this work consisted in classifying tion or trait of character that enabled one to authors in accordance with a tradition or line of perceive, deliberate, decide, act, and experience thinking.
Different criteria could be employed. Although virtue was not the only element, articles. Surely, certain authors could belong to it was considered the controlling factor to attain several schools and these schools mutually influ- eudaimonia human flourishing. Among these enced each other Dobson To some extent, authors were Solomon, Hartman, Shaw, Koehn, therefore, it was not possible to assign every author Alzola, Athanassoulis, Beck-Dudley, Bhuyan, to just one school.
The second school or author cluster was that These were some limitations encountered in the clas- inspired by MacIntyre. Despite being broadly an sification effort. Among them were, for sibility. Provis introduced Confucian elements; example, discussions on the possibility conditions for Calkins emphasized the importance of casuistry; and virtue in the Post-Enlightenment world changed by Aranzadi blended virtue ethics with the Austrian individualism and liberalism, the importance of theory of action.
Inasmuch as these Bauman, Simola, and Furman. Their virtue ethics scholars in business and management.
Included in this cluster were: in the chronological section. Greater attention is Arjoon, who combined virtue ethics with his own now directed to the remaining three authors. He distin- management framework; and Nesteruk, who sup- guished between corporate character and virtues, plied virtue ethics with a modern corporate legal which follow from practices, and corporate culture theory.
In the struggle against the corruptive forces to other theories and areas that Aristotelians would of capitalist institutions, for instance, Moore a mostly find acceptable. These largely arose from the traditional Aristotelians. They differed from the mode of institutionalization and the environment. Belonging to this capacity for virtue. Apart from developing a core group were Whetstone, Werhane, and Colle, who practice with its corresponding virtue, managers attempted a synthesis between virtue ethics on the should also seek the practice of sustaining the insti- one hand and deontology and utilitarianism on the tution itself, which then became an internal good.
Heugens, Kaptein, and van Oosterhout vidual preference and profit was problematic. Three major virtue ethics authors, Solomon, attention to moral identity and social cognitive Hartman, and Moore, wrote preferentially about theory.
For the most part, Bill Shaw was a traditional Insofar as they rejected an individualistic view of Aristotelian virtue ethicist who upheld its superiority human beings and accepted a constitutively rela- to rule-based approaches. They also elucidated how and to markets could cultivate virtues in the Aristotelian what extent these collectives display moral identity sense Shaw A ary moral agents, respectively.
The bulk of taken as a critic of modernity, individualism, acquisi- the research dealt with comparisons on the strengths tiveness, and market values. Dobson, however, did and weaknesses of virtue ethics in respect to utilitari- not believe that MacIntyre was totally anti-business. Also included under this heading were ened organization where virtues could be sought articles linking virtue ethics with feminine ethics and as goods internal to practices.
Dobson not only the ethics of care. Hence, virtues, as habits or character traits, influenced pref- erences and choices. They were proposed not so Main themes of virtue ethics research in much as a help in maximizing a given objective what- business and management soever, but as an aid in determining which objectives Several authors had already advised about the ambi- were worth pursuing, how and why.
Acknowledging guity of virtue and the difficulty of clarifying its the virtues meant acknowledging the deficiencies or meaning Solomon , Chun , Weaver Some conceptual research in moral each heading, the main themes in virtue ethics psychology dealing with traits in individuals and research could be determined.
Similarly, by studying organizations provided a basis for empirical and the frequency of the appearance of articles under a quantitative work. These emphasized the flexibility or context- Murphy was the author who stood out in this sensitivity of virtues with regard to firms, situations, category.
Hartman, Moberg, and Shaw were the without a unifying thread Table 7. Main trends of virtue ethics research in These articles objectified, measured, and examined business and management correlations between virtues as attitudes or behav- A careful analysis of the distribution of articles on iors and other factors in individuals, professions, major themes of virtue ethics research through and organizations. Assuming that all human 5-year intervals revealed the following.
Between and , Cameron et al. This experimental work nothing was published in this area. Related to the limited use of mental value of a virtue-inspired business ethics, a primary sources in virtue ethics was the neglect of consensus on the superiority of its intrinsic value other elements, such as accounts of goods seemed to have been formed.
This could indicate perma- fully met challenges. Granted that humans were not nent and widespread interest in the contributions of purely material beings, their good or flourishing virtue ethics to these three fields: the understanding required addressing their spiritual dimension as well. And the compatibility in some respects and informal settings; and the potency of a virtue of the Austrian theory of action the idea of a self- ethics account of decision making and action, espe- limiting freedom within an institutional framework cially among managers and leaders.
These works discussed the con- jumped to first place, in the period — This trend could be the result of psychology.
Their extension to virtue ethics research fairly recent attempts to establish conceptual links in business and management seemed to be a logical between virtue ethics and contemporary sources of step. Business Ethics. So far, Aristotelian, terly. In the Journal of Business Ethics, by con- Thirdly, from a broad Aristotelian perspective, it trast, all major fields of virtue ethics research were would be worthwhile to evaluate the merits or lack represented.
Because of this, other scholars felt duty- which they submit Table 9. Yet all of these elements were already present to some degree in the original Aristotelian formulation. Future directions in virtue What, then, do the competing schools add or sub- ethics research tract from the Aristotelian treatment of virtue? Is it possible to integrate them?
Would this be beneficial? However, for the basic exploratory most virtue ethics articles. This procedure also objectives outlined, the current methodology proved allowed the establishment of clusters of authors and adequate. On Fifthly, a more detailed study of each major the basis of this information, future virtue ethics author, topic, and period could be carried out.
This research could engage in the following. Some will ferred in quantitative, empirical, and psychological be internal, arising from particular members of a articles. Journal of Business from stumbling blocks, these could be valuable con- Ethics, , — Journal of Business Ethics, , — References Bull, C.
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